Article 5

No concession to companies shall involve any form of forced or compulsory labour

Article 1

Article 1-3

Abolition of child labour and definition of national minimum age for labour not less than 15-18 years (depending on occupation).

Articles 1-7

Abolition of child slavery, debt bondage, trafficking and procurement for prostitution; suitable methods to monitor and enforce compliance

Articles 17 (2), 21, 22 (2)

No exploitation or exposure to hazard or discrimination against indigenous women and children

Articles 2-11

Freedom to join organisations, federations and confederations of their own choosing, with freely chosen constitutions and rules; measures to protect the right to organise 

Articles 1-4

Protection against anti-union acts and measures to dominate unions, established means of voluntary negotiation of terms and conditions of employment through collective agreements.

Article 3

Indigenous peoples have the right to self-determination and to freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development. 

Articles 1-3

Equal remuneration for men and women for work of equal value

Equality of opportunity and treatment in respect to employment and occupation; no discrimination on the basis of race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction or social origin.

No discrimination based on origin or identity; free to express identity based on custom; special attention to full protection of rights of indigenous women.

Provision of Information; no obstacles to travel; provision of health care; non discrimination in employment; accommodation, social security and remuneration; no forced repatriation of legal workers, repatriation of savings.

Article 4

Alienation with due regard to customary rights, assistance to form cooperatives, tenancy arrangements to secure highest possible living standards. 

Article 13-19

Respect and safeguard rights to lands and natural resources traditionally occupied and used; respect for customs of inheritance; no forced removals; compensation for loss and injury

Articles 25, 26

Article 10 (c)

Protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional practices

Articles 6-9

Represent themselves through their own representative institutions; consultations with objective of achieving agreement or consent; rights to decide their own priorities, retain their own customs and resolve offences according t customary law (compatible with international human rights)

Articles 10, 11 (2), 19, 28 (1), 29 (2) and 32.(2).

Right to free, prior and informed consent to any project affecting their lands as expressed through their own representative institutions.

UN CERD Committee, UN Committee on Social Cultural and Economic Rights, InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights

Free, prior and Informed consent for decisions that may affect indigenous peoples.

Articles 7-21

Carry out risk assessments and adopt preventive and protective measures to ensure health and safety with workplaces, machinery, equipment, chemicals, tools and processes; ensure dissemination of information; appropriate training, supervision and compliance; special protections for youth and women workers; coverage against occupational injuries and disease.

Article 1-5

Prohibit and/or eliminate production and use of chemicals listed in Annex A of the Convention (eg Aldrin, Chlordane, PCB); restrict production and use of chemicals in Annex B (eg DDT); reduce or eliminate releases of chemicals listed in Annex C (eg Hexachlorobenzene).

Article 5

Curtail use of dangerous pesticides where control is difficult; ensure use of protective equipment and techniques; provide guidance for workers on safety measures; provide extension service to small holders and farmers; protect workers and bystanders; make available full information on risks and protections; protect biodiversity and minimize impacts on environment; ensure safe disposal of waste and equipment; make provisions for emergency treatment for poisoning.

Article 1, 5, and 6

Curb trade in banned and hazardous chemicals and pesticides; develop national procedures for control of their use and trade; the Convention lists banned and hazardous chemicals and pesticides.

Articles 21 (1), 23, 24, 29 (3)

Improvement of livelihood in sanitation, health and housing; participate in health delivery; maintain traditional health systems; effective monitoring of health.

The operational boundary includes growing and processing of sugarcane.  It considers the boundary to include each individual mill and its growers as a unit, rather than a company owning and operating more than one mill. In the case of IPPs (Independent Power Producers) providing steam and power to a mill from bagasse that has been provided by the mill, the IPP is considered together with the mill concerned. The system boundary includes in addition the energy embedded in the manyufacture and supply of all fertilizers and chemicals, but excludes the energy embedded in agricultural and milling capital equipment. All the activities of a plant on one site are considered, to reflect the sustainability of the total system producing food, fuel, energy and chemicals. 
This analysis represents a B2B analysis, considering the operation of a cane sugar processing facility, producing raw sugar and/or ethanol at the factory gate. Stand-alone refineries are not considered to be within the boundary. It accounts for the provision of products to a third party that is not the end user (cradle-to-gate). 

The energy and GHG calculations are associated with direct energy inputs and at a second level by indirect inputs. Direct inputs are mainly fuel and power inputs, expressed in terms of their primary energy value. Indirect inputs include, in addition, the energy required for the production of chemicals, fertilizers and other materials used. The indirect inputs do not include the additional energy necessary for the manufacture and construction of farm, transport and industrial equipment and buildings.

• Direct land change refers to a change from the original state of the land to use for sugarcane production. Depending on the previous use of the land in question, it is surmised that the land use change can unlock some of the carbon in the existing soil and vegetation. 

• Indirect land use change concerns secondary effects induced by large scale expansion. This displaces existing crops, leading to expansion of crop land elsewhere, either in the same country or in other parts of the world. The effects of these changes are very difficult to estimate. 

If the product’s supply chain directly caused non-agricultural land to be converted to agricultural use on or after 1 January 2008, then GHG emissions associated with the land use change are included in the carbon footprint calculation, consistent with the EU directive. In the absence of better information, the table of default land use change values for selected countries published in the PAS 2050 is used (BSI 2008), which values are also used by the RTFO.  

Because the methods and data requirements for calculating emissions from indirect land use change are not fully developed, the assessment of emissions arising from indirect land use change is not included here, or in fact in any current estimation system. This could change in the future if indirect effects can be calculated with more certainty and accuracy.

The EU Renewable Energy Directive allows for a substantial credit of 29 g CO2eq/MJ for a period of 10 years if severely degraded or contaminated land is used for biofuel crop purposes. It is suggested that this be allowed for.

•  The “substitution” or “displacement” method attempts to model reality by tracking the likely fate of by-products. Each co-product generates an energy and emission credit equal to the energy and emissions saved by not producing the material that the co-product is most likely to displace. 

•  The “allocation” method allocates energy and emissions from a process to the various products according to mass or energy contents or monetary values. 

In the case of sugarcane processing, a factory exporting power or bagasse achieves a credit in terms of energy and emissions saved, according to the displacement of energy in that country. Some standards recommend the use the grid average GHG intensity to calculate the GHG credit for the exported power. However it is more realistic to use the marginal energy mix. Since the marginal energy provision is likely to be from fossil fuels, the saving estimate is conservative when using the average generation mix. In this case, the approach aligned with the EU RED is adopted, which states that for calculating exported power credits, the average factor should be used. Where a factory produces only sugar and molasses, the allocation in proportion to market value is adopted; in most cases the allocation to molasses is less than 10 % of the total. Although the prices will change over time, the relative values will be far more stable. It is possible to use a displacement calculation, assuming that molasses displaces certain ingredients in an animal feed. However this is likely to vary significantly in different countries. In the case of a factory producing more or less equivalent quantities of sugar and ethanol, the split of energy input and GHG emissions between the two products becomes a more difficult issue. The EU RED requires that allocation should be by energy content of the products. Sugar has a calorific value of 16500 MJ/t and ethanol 21 MJ/L; on the basis that 600 L of ethanol are produced from one tonne of sucrose, this implies a sugar equivalent value of 27.5 MJ/L for sucrose. On this basis, 57 % of the emissions should be allocated to sugar and 43 % to ethanol. Alternatively the energy use and emissions are also allocated on a mass basis on equivalent sugar, on the basis that 1 tonne sugar is equivalent to 600 L ethanol. In the case of an autonomous distillery, where the only product is ethanol, energy use and emissions are related to litres of ethanol produced or to MJ in ethanol.

CO2 from sugarcane emitted in combustion and in ethanol fermentation is considered zero CO2 emission to the air, because this is the carbon taken in from the air during sugarcane growth. CO and VOCs emitted in combustion are assumed to be converted to CO2 fairly rapidly, but methane and nitrous oxides from burning bagasse are accounted for in GHG emissions. CO2 emissions arising from biogenic carbon sources are excluded from the calculation of GHG emissions from the life cycle of products, except where the CO2 arises from direct land use change.
The greenhouse gases covered are CO2, N2O and CH4. Methane and N2O have global warming potentials 25 and 298 times that of CO2 respectively (IPCC 2007). Greenhouse gas emissions are aggregated on a carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) basis.
Non-CO2 emissions arising from both fossil and biogenic carbon sources are included in the calculation of GHG emissions. In the case of burning bagasse in sugar mill boilers, it is assumed that 30 g CH4 and 4 g N2O are produced per 1000 MJ of energy in the bagasse burnt, based on IPCC data for burning of biomass. Changes in the carbon content of soils, either emissions or sequestration, other than those arising from direct land use change, are excluded from the assessment of GHG emissions. Any GHG emissions arising from transport required during the product and raw materials life cycle are included in the carbon footprint assessment. Emission factors for transport include emissions associated with creating and transporting the fuels required.

A materiality threshold of 1 % has been suggested to ensure that very minor sources of life cycle GHG emissions do not require the same treatment as more significant sources.
Both the energy usage and emissions are calculated in the same spreadsheet, since the latter are largely determined by the former. The calculation includes the effects of the manufacture of fertilizer. Farming operations include chemicals application, irrigation, tillage and harvesting (and preparation of cane setts for planting). Cane transport covers getting the cane to the mill. The cane is processed to sugar and molasses or ethanol, and may include export of electric power or bagasse. The energy embedded in the manufacture of milling and other equipment is excluded. Inclusion of energy embedded in capital goods and equipment generally has an effect of less than 10 % on calculated emissions and is excluded. No allowance for transport of products from the factory is allowed for.
The primary energy is calculated. It differs from the direct energy input in that it takes into account the efficiency of generation and supply of the secondary energy source e.g. using a conversion factor from energy in the fuel used to generate electricity to the energy in the power produced. This applies to power, fuel, steam and any other energy input.                              
The GHG balance is particularly uncertain because of fertilizer nitrous oxide emissions and error margins can be enormous. The use of nitrogen fertilizers results in GHG emissions in two stages: fertilizer manufacture (primarily CO2 emissions from energy used) and fertilizer application (primarily N2O emissions from nitrification and denitrification processes in the soil). The assumption is made that 1.325 % of N in nitrogen fertilizer is converted to N in N2O through nitrification and denitrification, following the IPCC recommendations.
In addition, agricultural lime application results in GHG emissions from both production energy use and in-soil reactions that release CO2. These latter emissions are a further source of uncertainty. The model uses the IPCC factor of 0.44 kg CO2eq/kg lime, which assumes that all C in lime becomes CO2. This is the upper limit; it is possible in weakly acidic soils that limestone results in a net sink of CO2.
The calculation approach adopted in this study is similar to that used in the EBAMM model (Farrell et al. 2006), which itself is similar to the GREET model (Wang et al. 2008). These models have been used in the past mainly to model the production of biofuels from corn, and they have had to be modified for sugarcane to incorporate additional issues as follows: